Fried Rich Wohler was born at Aschersheim near Frank furt in Germany in 1800 July. His father was educated. So a good library was always available to him.
         He studied Chemistry under the Guidance of Leopald Cmelin and Berzelius. He used to do dangerous experiments also in his boyhood days. Wohler synthesized an organic compound 'Urea' from an inorganic Chemical. He revolutionised the concepts of organic and inorganic Chemistry.
         Earlier to Wohler, there was a concept that compounds like Urea can only be obtained from nature and their synthesis in the laboratories is not possible. Wohler could make it in the laboratory and he gave birth to synthetic organic chemistry. This great scientist died in 1882.
 

KEY WORDS
* Hybridisation	* Allotropy
* Diamond	* Graphite
* Buckminster fullerene	* Nano tubes
* Catenation	* Tetravalency
* Hydrocarbons	* Alkanes

KEY WORDS
* Alkenes	* Alkynes
* Saturated Hydrocarbons	* Unsaturated hydrocarbons
* Functional Group	* Isomerism
* Homologous series	* Nomenclature
* Combustion	* Oxidation
* Addition reaction	* Substitution reaction
* Ethanol	* Ethanoic acid
* Ester	* Esterification
* Saponification	* Micelle

 

KEY WORDS - EXPLANATION

Hybridisation: The re distribution of orbitals of almost equal energy in individual atoms to give equal number of new orbitals with identical properties like energy and shape is called hybridisation.

Allotropy: The property of an element to exist in two or more physical forms having more or less similar chemical properties but different physical properties is called allotropy.
Diamond: Diamond is the crystalline allotropic form of Carbon. In diamond each Carbon atom Under goes in its excited state sp³ hybridisation. Hence each Carbon atom has a tetrahedral environment. Diamond is one of the hardest material known.
Graphite: Graphite forms a two dimensional layer structure with C - C bonds within the layers. There are relatively weak interactions between the layers. In the layer structure, the carbon atoms are in a triogonal planar environment. The layers are separated by a distance of 3.35 Aº. Graphite is used as lubricant and as the 'lead' in pencils.
Buckminster fullerene (₆₀C): Buckminster fullerenes are molecules of varying sizes that are composed entirely of Carbon. The arrangement of these molecules leads to the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid or tube depending upon their orientations. Fullerenes are formed when vaporized Carbon condenses in an atmosphere of an inert gas.
Nano tubes: Nano tubes are another allotropic form of Carbon. Nano tubes consist of hexagonal arrays of covalently bonded Carbon atoms, similar to the sheets in Graphite. These sheets are rolled into cylinders. Due to this reason they are called Nano tubes. These are electrical conductors and can be used as molecular wires.
Catenation: If any element forms bonds between its own atoms to give big molecules we call that property as Catenation property.
Tetravalency: If an atom of an element having four electrons in Valence shell, then the Valency is called Tetravalency.
Hydrocarbons: The compounds containing only Carbon and Hydrogen in their molecules are called hydrocarbons.
Alkanes: Hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between Carbon atoms are called alkanes.
Alkenes: Hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond between Carbon atoms are called alkenes.
Alkynes: Hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond between Carbon atoms are called alkynes.
Saturated Hydrocarbons: The hydrocarbons containing only C - C single bonds are known as saturated hydrocarbons.
Unsaturated hydro carbons: The hydro carbons that contain atleast one double bond (C = C) or contain atleast one triple bond (C  C) between the two carbon atoms are called Unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Functional group: The characteristic properties of an organic compound depend mainly on an atom or group of atoms in its molecule known as the functional group.
Isomerism: The phenomenon of possessing same molecular formula but different properties by the compounds is known as isomerism.
Homologous series: The series of Carbon compounds in which two successive compounds differ by -CH₂ unit is called Homologous series.
Nomenclature: The basic idea behind the systematic Nomenclature is that their should be only one name for the given structure through out the world and also there should be only one structure for the given name.
Combustion: The process of burning of Carbon or Carbon compound in excess of Oxygen to give CO₂, heat and light is called Combustion reaction.
Oxidation: Oxidation reactions may be carried out using oxidizing agents. Oxidizing agents or oxidants are substances that oxidize other substances. They themselves undergo reduction.
Addition reaction: Unsaturated organic compounds that contain multiple bonds (=,  bonds) like alkenes, and alkynes undergo addition reactions to become saturated. During the reactions addition of the reagent takes place at the double bonded or triple bonded Carbon atoms.

Substitution reaction: A reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms in a given compound is replaced by other atom or group of atoms is called a Substitution reaction.
Ethanol: Ethanol is Ethyl alcohol. It is a colourless liquid with characteristic sweet odour. Pure ethanol boils at 78.3ºC. Pure ethanol is called absolute (100%) alcohol.
Denatured alcohol is ethanol that contains impurities that make it undrinkable.
Ethanoic acid: Ethanoic acid is acetic acid. It is a colourless liquid with characteristic unpleasant odour. It is soluble in water and more acidic than H₂O or ethanol, but less acidic than mineral acids. 5% to 8% solution of Acetic acid in water is called Vinegar and is used widely as a preservative in pickles.
Ester: Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts in the presence of a mineral acid with ethanol to form a compound called ethyl acetate which is known as an Ester.

Esterfication: The reaction between carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of cone. H₂SO₄ to form a sweet odoured substance, ester with the functional group is called Esterification.
                                                                 
Saponification: Alkaline hydrolysis of ester producing soaps is called Saponification.
Micelle: A spherical aggregate of soap molecules in the soap solution in water is called micelle.
 

SYNOPSIS

¤ If Carbon loses four electrons from the outer shell, it has to form C⁴⁺ ions. This requires huge amount of energy which is not available normally. Therefore C⁴⁺ formation also is a remote possibility.
¤ Carbon is a non-metal. It belongs to the Fourteenth Group or IVA Group in the Modern Periodic Table.
¤ The elements of this group have four electrons in the Valence Shell.
¤ Electronic configuration of Carbon (ground state) ₆C: 1s² 2s² 2p²
¤ To get the octet in its outer shell it has to gain four more electrons to form C^4-
¤ The electronegativity of Carbon is only 2.5 and its Nucleus has only six protons. Therefore it would be difficult for a nucleus. With six protons to hold ten electrons. Hence Carbon cannot form C^4- ions so easily.

¤ Carbon has to satisfy its tetravalency by sharing electrons with the other atoms.
It has to form four covalent bonds either with its own atoms or atoms of other elements.
¤ Electronic Configuration of Carbon (ground state):
      1s² 2s² 2p²  (OR)  1s² 2s² 2p_x¹ 2p_y¹  2p_z⁰ 
      
       
             1s²              2s²               2p_x      2p_y       2p_z
                      (Carbon ground state)
¤ Electronic Configuration of Carbon: (excited State)
         
             1s²              2s¹               2p_x¹    2p_y¹    2p_z¹
                    (Carbon excited State)

¤ In the excited state carbon atom gets its one of the '2s' electrons to say 2p_z.
¤ Now at this state each Carbon atom has four unpaired electrons. It tends to form four Covalent bonds.
¤ The redistribution of orbitals of almost equal energy in individual atoms to give equal number of new orbitals with identical properties, like energy and shape is called Hybridisation. The newly formed orbitals are called Hydrid orbitals.
sp³ Hybridisation: In the excited Carbon atom its one s-orbital (2s) and three p-orbitals (2p_x, 2p_y, 2p_z) intermix and reshuffle into four identical orbitals known as sp³ orbitals. Thus Carbon atom undergoes sp³ hybridisation.
       
¤ When Carbon atom reacts with Hydrogen, four Hydrogen atoms allow their 's' orbitals containing one electron each to overlap the four sp³ orbitals of Carbon atom which are oriented at an angle of 109º28'

sp² Hybridisation: In the formation of Ethene (Ethylene, CH₂ = CH₂) each Carbon atom in its excited state undergoes sp² hybridisation by intermixing one s-orbital (2s) and two p-orbitals. (Say 2p_x and 2p_y) and reshuffling to form three sp2 orbitals.
¤ Now each Carbon atom is left with one 'p' orbital (say 2p²) unhybridised.
¤ The three sp² orbitals having one electron each get separated around the nucleus of Carbon atoms at an angle of 120º.

¤ When carbon atom is ready to form bonds one sp² orbital of one Carbon atom overlaps the sp² orbital of the other Carbon atom to form sp² - sp² sigma (σ) bond. The remaining two sp² orbitals of each Carbon atom get overlapped by 's' orbitals of two Hydrogen atoms containing unpaired electrons.
        

¤ The common name for Ethene is Ethylene.

sp Hybridisation: Each Carbon is only joining to two other atoms rather than four (as in Ethane or Methane) or three (as in Ethene). Here the Carbon atoms hybridise their outer orbitals before forming bonds, this time they only hybridise two of the orbitals.
¤ They use the 's' orbital (2s) and one of the 2p orbitals, but leave the other 2p orbitals unchanged. The new hybrid orbitals formed are called sp hybrid orbitals, because they are made by an 's' orbital and a p-orbital recognising themselves.
¤ In acetylene molecule, there exists a triple bond between two Carbon atoms and the fourth valency of each Carbon atom is satisfied by Hydrogen atoms.
(H -C  C - H).
         

¤ In C₂H₂ molecule there are two Carbon atoms and two Hydrogen atoms. In excited state each Carbon atom undergoes sp-hybridisation by mixing its one 's' orbital (2s) and one 'p' orbital (2p_x) and reshuffling to form two identical orbitals known as sp-orbitals.
¤ Allotropes of Carbon: The allotropes of Carbon are:
    1) Amorphous forms        2) Crystalline forms
¤ Coal, Coke, Wood charcoal, Animal Charcoal, Lamp black, Gas Carbon, Petroleum Coke, Sugar Charcoal are different amorphous allotropes of Carbon.
¤ Carbon in solid phase can exist in three crystalline allotropic forms: diamond, graphite and Buckminster fullerene.
¤ Nano tubes are another allotropic form of Carbon discovered in 1991 by Sumio li jima.
¤ F.Wohler (1828) produced an organic compound 'Urea' in the laboratory by heating an inorganic salt 'Ammonium cyanate'.
¤ The peculiar behaviour of carbon is its ability to form longest chains with its own atoms. If any element forms bonds between its own atoms to give big molecules we call that property as catenation property.
¤ Compounds containing only Carbon and Hydrogen in their molecules are called 'hydrocarbons'.
¤ Open chain hydrocarbons are called 'aliphatic hydrocarbons'.
¤ Hydro carbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms are called 'Alkanes'.
¤ Hydrocarbons containing atleast one double bond between carbon atoms are called Alkenes.
¤ Hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond between carbon atoms are called Alkynes.
¤ Hydrocarbons containing only C - C single bonds are known as saturated hydrocarbons. All alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons.
¤ The Hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond (C = C) or contain at least one triple bond (C 

 C) between two Carbon atoms are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
¤ Compounds containing C, H, X where X represents halogens ( Cl, Br, I atoms) are known as halo hydrocarbons.
¤ The hydrocarbons that contain - OH group are called alcohols.
¤ General formula of alcohols is R - OH where R is alkyle group, C_nH_{2n + 1}
¤ The hydrocarbons with functional group -CHO are called aldehydes.

¤ General formula of aldehydes is R - CHO where R is alkyle group and - CHO is a functional group.
¤ Ketones: The hydrocarbons with  
    Functional group are called Ketones.
^¤   group is known as Ketone group.
¤ General formula of ketone is  
     R and R' are alkyl groups which may be same or different.
Carboxylic acids: The general molecular formula of carboxylic acid is R - COOH where R is an alkyle group or H atom.
Ethers: Ethers are Carbon compounds related to H₂O in such a way that both hydrogen atoms are replace by two alkyl groups which may be the same or different.
Esters: These compounds are derivatives of carboxylic acids. If the Hydrogen atom of - COOH gets replaced by 'R', the alkyl group esters are obtained.

Amines: -NH₂ group is called amine group.
¤ The characteristic properties of an organic compound depend mainly on an atom or group of atoms in its molecule known as the functional group.
Isomerism: The phenomenon of possessing same molecular formula but different properties by the compounds is known as isomerism.
Isomers: The compounds that exhibit isomerism are called isomers.
¤ The series of Carbon compounds in which two successive compounds differ by -CH₂ unit is called homologous series.
¤ Homologous series of organic compounds have one general formula: Alkanes (C_nH_{2n + 2}), Alkynes (C_nH_{2n - 2}) Alcohols (C_nH_{2n + 1}) OH... etc.
Combustion reactions: Carbon and its compounds burn in the presence of Oxygen or air to give CO₂, heat and light.
Oxidation reactions: Oxidation reactions may be carried out using oxidizing agents. Oxidizing agents or oxidants are substances that oxidize other substances. They themselves undergo reduction.
Addition reactions: Unsaturated organic compounds that contain multiple bonds (=,  bonds) like alkenes, and alkynes undergo addition reactions to become saturated.
Substitution reactions: A reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms in a given compound is replaced by other atom or group of atoms is called a substitution reaction.
¤ Alkanes, the saturated hydrocarbons are chemically least reactive. Therefore they are also called paraffins.
¤ The process of conversion of starches and sugars to C₂H₅OH is called permentation process.
¤ Ethanoic acid is commonly called as acetic acid. 5%-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a preservative in pickles.
¤ The strength of acids may be expressed in terms of their pKa values. These values are related to their dissociation in aqueous solutions.
¤ pKa is the negative value of logarithm of dissociation constant of an acid.
¤ The general formula of esters is R - COO - R'. Here R and R' are alkyl groups or phenyl groups.

¤ The reaction between carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of conc. H₂SO₄ to form a sweet odoured substance, Ester with the functional group
  is called esterfication
¤ Alkaline hydrolysis of tri esters of higher fatty acids producing soaps is called saponification.
¤ Soaps are good cleansing agents.
¤ A true solution is that in which the solute particles dispersed in the solvent are less than 1mm in diameter.
¤ A colloidal solution contains the solute known as 'dispersed phase' with its particles with diameters greater than 1 mm but lesser than 1000 mm in the solvent known as 'dispersion medium'.
¤ A spherical aggregate of soap molecules in water is called micelle.
¤ Soap has one polar end and one non-polar end.
¤ The polar end is hydrophilic in nature and this end is attracted towards the water.
¤ The non-polar end is hydrophobic in nature and it is attracted towards grease or oil on the cloth, but not attracted towards water.

¤ When soap is dissolved in water, its hydrophobic ends attach themselves to dirt and remove it from the cloth.
¤ The hydrophobic end of soap molecules move towards the dirt or grease particles. These ends try to pull out these particles.
¤ The molecules of soap surround the dirt particles at the centre of the cluster and form a spherical structure called micelle.
¤ The micelles remain suspended in water like particles in a colloidal solution.
¤ The various micelles present in water do not come together to form a precipitate as each micelle repels the other because of the ion-ion repulsion.
¤ Thus, the dust particles remain trapped in micelles and are easily rinsed away with water.
¤ Hence soap micelles remove dirt by dissolving it in water.

 

1. Primary Suffixes

Name of Hydrocarbon	Nature of bond	Suffix
Alkane (CnH2n + 2)	All single bonds	-ane
Alkene (CnH2n)	one double bond at least between two Carbon atoms	-ene
Alkyne (CnH2n - 2)	one triple bond atleast between two Carbon atoms	-yne

                        Ready made Information in the form of Tables

1. Primary and secondary prefixes and suffixes of some important functional groups.

Class	Formula	Prefix	Suffix
Acid halides	-COX (where x is halogen atom)	halocarbonyl	Carbonal halide
	-(C) O-X		Oylhalide
Alcohols	-OH	hydroxy	ol

Class	Formula	Prefix	Suffix
Aldehydes	-CHO	formly	Carbaldehyde
	- (C) HO	OXO	-al
Amides	CONH2	Carbamoyl	Carboxmide
	-(C) O NH2	OXO	-al
Amines	- NH2	amino	amine
Carboxylic acids	-COOH	Carboxy	Carboxylic acid
	-(C)OOH		oic acid
Ethers	-OR	(R) oxy
Esters	-COOR	Oxycarbonyl	(R)...Carboxylate
	(C)OOR	R-oxycarbonyl	(R)... oate
Ketones	-C = O	OXO	-one
Nitriles	-CN	cyno	-Carbonytrile
	-(C)N		Nitrile

2. Hydrocarbons - Shapes & hybridisation.

Hydrocarbon	General formula	Shape of molecule	Hybridisation of carbon atoms type	Bond angle
Alkane	CnH2n + 2	Tetra hydral	sp3	109º 28'
Alkene	CnH2n	Trigonal plannar	sp2	120º
Alkyne	CnH2n - 2		sp	180º

3. Homo logous Series of Alkanes (C_nH_{2n + 2})

Alkane	Molecular Formula	Strcuture	No. of atoms	M.P.	B.P.	Density gml-1 at 20º C
Methane	CH4	H - CH2-H	1	-183ºC	-164ºC	0.55
Ethane	C2H6	H-(CH2)2-H	2	-183ºC	-89ºC	0.51
Propane	C3H8	H-(CH2)3-H	3	-189ºC	-42ºC	0.50
Butane	C4H10	H-(CH2)4-H	4	-138ºC	0ºC	0.58
Pentane	C5H12	H-(CH2)5-H	5	-136ºC	36ºC	0.63

                                             M.P.: Melting Point, B.P.: Boiling Point

4. Homologous Series of Alkenes (C_nH_2n)

Alkene	Structure	No. of C-atoms	Formula
Ethene	CH2 = CH2	2	C2H4
Propene	CH3-CH = CH2	3	C3H6
Butene	CH3-CH2-CH = CH2	4	C4H8
Pentene	CH3-CH2-CH2-CH = CH2	5	C5H10

              No. of C-atoms : Number of Carbon atoms
5. Homo logous Series of Alkynes (C_nH_2n-2)

Alkene	Structure	No. of C-atoms	Formula
Ethyne	HC CH	2	C2H2
Propyne	CH3 - C CH	3	C3H4
Butyne	CH3 - H2C-C CH	4	C4H6
Pentyne	CH3-CH2-CH2-C CH	5	C5H8

6. Secondary Suffixes

Compound	Symbol	Common formula	Secondary Suffix	Common IUPAC name
Alchols	-OH	ROH	-ol	Alkanol
Ethers	-O-	ROR	-oxy	alkoxy alkane
Aldehydes	-CHO	RCHO	-al	Alkanal
Ketones	-CO-	RCOR	-one	Alkanone
Carboxylic acids	-COOH	RCOOH	-oic acid	Alkanoic acid
Amines	-NH2	RNH2	-amine	Alkanamine
Esters	-COO-	RCOOR	-oate	Alkyl alkanoate